Some facts about Iceland

 

 

Iceland is frequently called the “Land of Fire and Ice,” indicating the contrasts in the geology of this island in the North Atlantic Ocean. The name of the country must be considered an exaggeration as only about 11% of its surface is covered with glaciers. In warmer, prehistorical periods the ice coverage is believed to have been much less. The reference to fire, on the other hand, is more correct as there are many active volcanoes in the country. Since settlement there have been a large number of volcanic eruptions, the last occurring under Vatnajökull glacier in the spring of 1997. Iceland is thus a young country, still being formed, and is therefore a very interesting environmental laboratory. The hot springs, which are among the country´s most valuable resources, are direct result of the volcanism. The geographical location of Iceland can be described by saying that the arctic circle crosses its northernmost part, the island of Grimsey. The climate in Iceland is, however, warmer than one would expect so far north. The reason for this is that a branch of the warm Gulf Stream encircles the country and keeps the climate fairly moderate. Iceland is therefore a good place to live. Fishing the rich fishing banks around the country, together with farming, have been the basis of Icelandic economy. Today, industry and torism are becoming increasingly important. prehistorical period: the epoc of mankind before written history    arctic circle: parallel with latitude 66°33’, 23,5” from the North Pole.

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An island far from the continents

The area of Iceland is 103.000 sq. Km. or about the size of the U.S. state of Kentucky. The country was settled around year 870, or possibly earlier. The present population numbers around 300.000 people. The people are not distributed evenly over the country; by far the gratest number live in the lowlands, which are only about a quarter of the total area.
The climate of Iceland has a great influence on plant and animal life, but the fact that the country is an island, far from any continent, also plays an important role. The result is that relatively few plant species are found here compared with regions at similar latitudes on the European and North American continents. The main reason for this is not the climate but the fact that the large expanse of ocean acts as a barrier for the natural transport of seeds. The same applies for terrestrial animals. The arctic fox is the only native mammal species in Iceland. Today the number of plant species in the country is increasing rapidly because man is giving nature a helping hand and importing plants.
The long distance from the continents has also protected the country´s environment. The ocean around Iceland, the atmosphere, lakes, rivers, soils and vegetation have remained relatively unpolluted. In spite of this it would be wrong to say that the environment is undisturbed. Eleven centuries of habitation, in combination with the climate, volcanic activity and other natural catastrophes, have had disastrous effects on the vegetation and wildlife.

lowlands in Iceland: below 300 -400 meters elevation above sea level

terrestrial animals: animals living on land
mammal species: species of animals that feed their young on milk

 

 A land is formed

The modern geological view is that the earth´s crust is divided into numerous plates which move very slowly. The plates in the North Atlantic were merged into plate about 60 million years ag o. Then it broke up. There are two types of boundaries between the plates. From mid-oceanic ridges molten material from the interior of the earth reaches the surface and the two plates subsequently push apart. This is te case in Iceland. With the other tipe of boundary, two plates move towards each other. Then a light continental plate usually overrides a heavier oceanic plate.
Land is formed when volcanic activity greatly exceeds the normal rift production. This is believed to be caused by mantle plumes, a massive stocklike current of hot material from deep within the interior of the earth. The two most famous mantle plumes lie under Iceland and Hawaii. If it were not for the mantle plume, instead of  Iceland there would be a 2750 meters deep ocean.
Iceland is located in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge where two major crustal plates are seperating, at the rate of approximately 20 mm. per year. The mid-ocean ridge system is about 80.000 km. long and is only visible on land in Iceland and parts of East Africa.
  

rift: fissure where two plates drift apart

Mid-Atlantic Ridge: fissure system along the entire Atlantic Ocean where spreading takes place

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Geology

Iceland is mountanious and more than half of the island is 400 meters or more above sea level. Regions of rugged lava and glaciers each cover about 11% of the total area.
Virtually all of the land is derived from volcanic rocks, and so volcanic activity is one of the main characteristics of Iceland. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge comes ashore at the Reykjanes Peninsula in the southwest and branches across the island to the north-east in the shape of an upside down Y. This active volcanic zone traces the path of the ridge. Thus the rock are older the further one moves away from the active volcanic zone. The oldest rocks are in the northwest of Iceland and the East Fjords and are about 15 million years old. Since the land was formed it has been eroded by wind, rain, glaciers, rivers and the ocean. The land is therfore constantly forming, like clay in an artist´s hands.
About 30 major volcanoes are spread over the volcanic zones. They can reach a height of 2000 meters above sea level and frequently erupt. The eruptions may be both very violent and voluminous. The biggest historical eruption took place in 1783-84; its influence on the northern hemisphere was so widespread that it led to a noticeable cooling of the climate lasting for several years. About a quarter of the population of Iceland subsequently perished, mostly from starvation when the livestock was killed, for instance by poisonous fumes given off by eruption.

 

Glacial history

During the last 3 million years Iceland has experienced about 30 cold periods or major glaciations. The average temperature was then about 10°C lower than at present. Each glaciation lasted about 100,000 years and the warmer periods less than 10,000 years. The last glacial period ended about 10,000 years ago.
Glaciers carved the underlying bedrock and left smooth surfaces. They formed the U-shaped valleys and scarred the rocks, leaving glacial striae.
During glaciation a cast amount of water was stored in the glaciers so that the global sea level dropped to about 130 meters below the present level. Due to the heavy glacial laod the crust subsided under the main ice caps. Glacial periods end rather abruptly and the mean temperature rises surprisingly quickly. The glasciers melt fast and the sea level rises, causing the sea to flood low-lying areas. Old marine terraces are therefore found at a great hight, up to 115 meters above present sea level in the southern Iceland. Subfossil shells and bones of marine mammals can often be found in the marine terrace. One such site is the Patterson Air Field in Njardvik.

 

Subfossil: remains of animals or plants

Volcanic eruptions

Volcanic eruptions are some of the most magnificent phenomena on earth. They are caused by molten magma ascending to the surface from great depths within the crust, often from a depth of 5-19 km.
In Iceland two main types of eruptions occur. The first type is fissure eruptions where the crust is rifted apart along a line of up to 50 km. long, and a wall of fire is formed. The height of the fiery wall can reach hundreds and even thousands of feet. The second type is an explosive er uption producing an immense amount of ash which can be airborne over long distances. The columns in explosive eruptions can reach a height of 25 -30 km. and can be seen from a long distance.
The most famous volcano in Iceland, Mt. Hekla, produces both ash and lava.
The volcanic activity on the Reykjanes Peninsula is mainly of the fissure type, producing vast quantities of lava but only a very small amount of ash. During an eruption craters are formed along a fissure. The size of the craters can vary from a few feet in height and a diameter up to several hundred feet. The lava from fissure eruptions is very fluid and flows rapidly over long distances. The eruptions are most vigorous during the first few days and generally last for a short time, perhaps for only a few months. In contrast, it is thought that eruptions producing shield volcanous may last for decades.

 

Subglacial eruptions

Volcanic eruptions under ice behave differently from eruptions on ice-free land. In 1997 this type of eruption took place under Vatnajökull glacier.
A subglacial eruption begins when molten magma at a temperature of 1.200°C rises and comes into contact with the overlying ice sheet. The magma melts a cavity in the ice which then partly fills with meltwater. When the hot magma comes into contact with the cold meltwater, the magma disintegrates into fragments called ash or tuff. If the water depth is sufficient the magma may form as pillow lavas instead of ash.
During the eruption the ash partly or completely fills the cavity where, in time, it consolidates. If the eruption is large or prolonged it may break through the ice and completely fill the cavity with ash. When the water no longer flows into the eruption channel, lava starts to flow and cap s the pile of ash, forming flat-topped table mountains. Table mountains correspond to shield volcanoes.
Subglacial fissure eruptions from tuff ridges, which are common on the Reykjanes Peninsula.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Historical eruptions

 

Historical time in Iceland covers the period from the settlement by the No rse in the latter half of the ninht century to the current time. One major volcanic episode has occured on the Reykjanes Peninsula since that time. This episode can be divided into three main volcanic eruptions. The first was the Blafjöll Fires, which took place from year 950 to about 1000 AD. In this eruption a vast amount of lava flowed. Second were the Krysuvik Fires, which took place in 1151 followed by a minor eruption in 1188. In the former a 26 kilometers long fissure erupted and lava flowed into the sea. The eruption formed the Ogmundarhraun lava to the south and the Kapelluhraun lava to the north. In that eruption the lava covered the major farm site of Krysuvik and encircled a church.
The third eruption was the Reykja nes Fires between 1210 and 1240 AD. This eruption took place at the outermost part of the Reykjanes Peninsula, with some of the activity under the sea. It was during that time that the volcanic island Eldey was formed a few miles off the coast.
The main eruption took place in 1226 at the tip of the peninsula. It produced ash which was carried by southwesterly winds over the Reykjanes Peninsula; this ash can be seen today in soil profiles. This eruption greatly increased soil erosion in Reykjanes.

 

Soil profile: vertical section through soil
Soil erosion: loss of soil, for instance caused by water, wind or screes

 

Geothermal activity

Geothermal activity is common in Iceland. It can be divided into two types. The first is low-temperature geothermal activity which is characterized by warm to boiling water. Geysers may be present. The second is high-temperature geothermal activity which is characterized by solfataras and steam vents.
On the Reykjanes Peninsula most of the geothermal activity is of the high-temperature type. At Krysuvik mud pools and steam vents can be observed. Deposits of yellow sulphur are often seen at the steam vents.
Normally geothermal water forms from rain or snow, which percolates to depths of a several kilometers, where it is heated to 200°-300°C and then rises to the surface, boiling either as water or steam. The Reykjanes Peninsula is an exception because most of the geothermal fluid in its outer part is seawater which seeps into the bedrock and is heated.
Geothermal energy is one of the main energy sources of Iceland. Nearly 90% of the buildings in Iceland are centrally heated by geothermal water. High-temperature geothermal activity is also used for the generation of electricity. The other main energy source in Iceland is hydropower.

 

Geothermal: pertaining to the internal heat of the earth
Geyser: natural spring sending up a column of hot water or steam at intervals
Solfatara: sulphurpus hot spring

Hydropower: generation of electricity by water

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Man and climate

 

No part of nature has more influence on daily life than the weather. This is shown, for instance, in how often people talk about the weather. Not all people of course, are dependent on the weather to the same degree. In some places the weather is so good and stable that there is no need to be worried about it. Thisis not the case in Iceland, far north in the Atlantic Ocean, where the weather is unstable and can cause disasters. Sudurnes is an example of an area with unstable weather. There, people from the time of the first settlement have gained their livelihood from the sea by fishing. It is often windy on the fishing area off the coast of Sudurnes, and even well into the nineteenth century people went to sea to fish from small rowboats. Therefore life hung on the need to “predict the weather.” All too often this was not enough as the weather can shift rapidly in this area. Safety has increased with improving weather forecasts so that today weather seldom comes without prior warning. The weather influences not only people’s lives but of course all living things, animals and vegetation. People can also influence the weather, for instance, by planting trees is order to decrease the wind and raise the temperature in the immediate vicinity. Unfortunately, however, human influence on the weather is often damaging, as for instance through atmospheric pollution and the destruction of forests.

 

 

Principal factors affecting the weather

 

The climate of a country is the result of its position on the earth and its landscape. The sun is the main source but its position relative to the earth accounts for differning degrees of temperature. The temperature is highest were the sun is generally highest, that is, at the equator. Since Iceland is at 65°N latitude, the sun is low in the sky at all seasons and the climate should in fact be colder than it actually is.
One of the reasons the climate is warmer in Iceland than at other places at the same latitude is the warm ocean current, the Gulf Stream, which passes south of Iceland. Warm winds from the south also reach Iceland. Warm, moist air often comes from the southwest, making the climate relatively mild and wet on Sudurnes. On the other hand, cold polar air masses come from the north and cold currents from Arctic Ocean. In Iceland, therefore, hot and cold air meet, often resulting in strong winds.
Drift ice greatly influences the weather in Iceland. It causes low temperatures and fog. In years with great deal of ice, it can reach the land in the latter part of winter. Drift or pack ice is called “the country’s ancient enemy” because it often brought great cold and misery.
Finally it should be noted that large parts of Iceland are highlands. Elevation is an important factor because air temperature decreases on average more than 1°C for every 100 meters above sea level.
In short, the lowlands in Iceland are characterized by a cold temperate maritime climate with short cool summers, and the highlands by an arctic climate.

 

Maritime climate: in Iceland, cold temperate, humid climate
Arctic climate: cold, dry climate of the north polar regions

 

 

Temperature

It is thought that the weather was relatively warm and good in the first years after settlement and the glaciers small. In the nineteenth century the climate gradually turned colder, and after that time it was unfavorable until the end of the nineteenth century when it began to warm agin.
Today, scientists are eagerly seeking axplanations of these temperature changes. Some of the reasons are believed to be changes in solar radiation, changes in ocean currents, volcanic activity, space dust and human effects on the environment.
Iceland has a maritime climate and therefore there is relatively little difference in temperature during the day and from one season to another. It is rarely very hot or very cold. The average annual temperature at Keflavik airport in 1961-1990 was 4.5 °C, whereas in New York it was 12°C. The average annual temperature in the hottest month, July, was 10°C in Keflavik and about 20°C in New York. This is a large difference. The highest temperature recorded in Iceland was over 30°C and the lowest -38°C.
In the lowlands of Iceland freezing temperatures are recorded for a longer or shorter time from the beginning of October to the middle of May. However, there are rarely continuous periods of freezing temperatures on Sudurnes.

 

Space dust: solid, fine particles in space

 

Precipitation and air humidity

Generally the relative air humidity is high in Iceland and there is frequent peripitation. The relative humidity shows how much moisture there is in the air. It is generally highest in July and August and lowest in May.
Precipitation is recorded in inches. If it measures 2.5 mm or more per day, the day is counted as having precipitation. Keflavik averages 226 days of precipitation per year, or two of every three days. This appears to be a great deal, but on many days the precipitation is so little that it is hardly felt. Sometimes precipitation has occurred on only 4-8 days in a month on Sudurnes. October has the most days with precipitation and May and June the fewest. The average annual precipitation for the country was about 350 cm at Kvisker in the Oraefi district, southeast Iceland.
Precipitation can come with winds from almost any direction, but especially from the southest. On Sudurnes the weather is driest with northeast winds. More precipitation is recorded on the southern side than on the northern side of Reykjanes Peninsula as the climate is always wetter on the windward side of mountains. On Sudurnes some or all of the precipitation may fall as snow or sleet except in June, July and August.

 

Windward side: a mountain side exposed to the wind.

 

Clouds and sunshine

   
The sky is rarely completely cloudless in Icelad, especially along the coast. The number of cloudy days is 200-220 per year. There is no great difference between the months, though the sunniest month is usually May. On average there are only seven to eleven clear days per year. In Reykjavik there are, on average, 1268 sunny hours a year. May has 192 hours and Deember only 12 hours.
On Sudurnes it is often cold when the sun shines. This weather is called “window weather”. It is not always as good as it looks as the wind blows from the north, bringing cold air from the Arctic Ocean. “Good days” on Sudurnes, that is, dry and warm ones, usually come with calm east winds. However, visibility is then sometimes reduced by polluted air from Europe. When warm, moist air blows from the south it is usually overcast and misty.
The most common cloud formations are low-altitude stratocumulus and stratus clouds and mid-altitude altostratus and altocumulus clouds.
Thunderstorms are rare in Iceland, as in most northern regions. On average thunderstorms occur only two days a year and rarely cause serious damage. The northern lights, or aurora borealis, are often seen clearly on cold, clear winter nights. They appear when electromagnetic particles are carried from the sun into the earth’s atmosphere.

 

 

Wind

Iceland is one of the windiest countries in the world, caused by the lows that pass over the land. They are low pressure areas where the air above is lighter than in highs or high pressure areas. The lows are often characterized by high winds and precipitation and the highs by calm weather and light cloud cover. When the wind speed in a low pressure area is high, the winds often cause bad weather and sometimes damage, both summer and winter. The winds are strongest from the east before a low front and from southwest in unstable air when the wind is gusty. Winds are modified by the form of the landscape.
On Sudurnes there is seldom calm weather for a long time. The most common wind direction is east, followed by the southwest. Often strong lows first reach Sudurnes with large an rapid changes in temperature, wind and precipitation. As the area is rather flat there are few obstructions to reduce the wind speed. The average wind speed is about 23 km. per hour.
On February 3, 1991, one of the worst winds of the century passed over the country, measuring about 166 km. per hour in Keflavik and about 220 km. per hour at Storhofdi in the Westman Islands in the gusts.

 

 

Snow cover

 

The snow cover in Iceland is very variable. Most snow collects in the mountainous areas in the West Fjords and in the northern and eastern parts of Iceland. In the southwest there is much less snow. In general the depth of the snow is greatest in February and March. On Sudurnes less than one tenth of the annual precipitation falls as snow but snow can be expected at any time from about the middle of October to the beginning of April. During the winter months on average there is snow cover for as many days as there is bare ground.
Most of the snow comes with strong west and southwest winds, frequently with drifting snow and blizzards. Blizzards do not last long on Sudurnes compared to the huge snowstorms that can can last for days in the northern part of the country. Despite the fact that the snow cover is light on Sudurnes, intermittent snowstorms and drifting snow often cause difficult driving conditions, although they do not last long.
Suitably deep snow protects vegetation from dry cold and alternating freezing and thawing, which is difficult for the plants.

 

 

Storms and high tides

 

When deep lows and high tides coincide with southwesterly winds the tides are often very high along the entire southwest coast. The sea then floods the land, causing a great deal of damage on Sudurnes in January, 1990.
During the winter, lows come down from the arctic, and are formed when cold air blows over much warmer sea. Such lows do not cover as large area as the usual lows. These polar lows approach Sudurnes from the west and southwest from December through March, and bring frequent intermitent snowstorms.
The lows from more southerly areas often pass quikly over Iceland to the northeast. They bring large and rapid changes in the weather, even more so than in other countries. The Icelandic low is a world known phenomenon. It is a low-pressure area in the North-Atlantic Ocean, centered just southwest of Iceland.
It is often difficult to know what to wear when the weather is rainy with a temperature of 4 to 10°C when a person leaves home on a winter’s morning. It may drop to -7°C with intermittent snowstorms later in the day.
There is great variability in the weather on Sudurnes. In comparison to the contry as a whole, however, this area has some of the mildest weather in Iceland and is relatively free of violent winds.

 

The main role of plant

 

-Green plants on land, in oceans, lakes and rivers are the basis for food production and thus for life on our common home- the earth. Through their green material (chlorophyll) the plants utilize solar energy to assimilate the inorganic carbon dioxide (CO2) of the atmosphere (photosynthesis). Together with water and other plant nutrients, which the plants take up from the soil, they produce organic matter which forms the basis of our daily food. No other living organisms, not even man himself, are able to do that. Therefore the green plants are producers and come first in the food chain, while man and animals are consumers and come second.

-Plants are partly responsible for renewing the oxygen (O2) of the atmorsphere which humans, animals and plants take in through the process of respiration.

-Vegetation binds the soil and protects it from soil erosion.

-By taking up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, plants, especially trees and shrubs, play an important role in the prevention of the greenhouse effect or undesirable warming of the surface of the earth. Together with soil erosion and pollution, this warming is now considered to be one of the most serious threats to life on earth.

-The beauty of vegetated land compared with non-vegetated land is indisputable.

All this and many other aspects relating to the role of plants should be sufficient to convince everyone hoe important it is to protect and increase the vegetation on the earth.

 

Green plant: a plant containing chlorophyll.
Greenhouse effect: warming of the earth’s surface due to increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

 

 

 

Animal life- introduction

 

The fact that Iceland is an island has put its mark on the the diversity of animal species living there. Mammals hace been unable to reach the country on their own accord except by flying, swimming or bt drift ice.
Bats are the only mammals able to fly and occasionally bats have been brought to Iceland by strong winds. However, they have been unable to thrive in the cold for any lenght of time. Seals and whales have no problems reaching Iceland but this is not the case with terrestrial mammals. Arctic foxes took up residence in Iceland at the end of the Ice Age as they can easely travel long distances on drift ice. Polar bears visit the country in years when the drift ice reaches its shores but conditions in Iceland are not favorable for them as they need the drift ice to hunt seals.
Most species of birds have no problems in getting to Iceland. This is particularly true for birds that can swim and can therefore take a rest on the ocean on their way here, if necessary. Others are carried to Iceland by strong winds. Some birds stay all year long although many of them migrate to warmer countries for the winter.
In Iceland there are no reptiles or amphibians. Even if they did manage to get here, it would be too cold for them to survive.

 

 

Seals

 

There are two species of seals whcich bread along the shores of Iceland. The Common seal is the more common of the two, as the name implies. The other species is the Gray seal.
The seals feed on a wide variety of fish species. Surprisingly they very rarely attack birds, even though they often swim among them. Seals are extremely curious and frequently come swimming towards people when they see them. When scared, they dive and come to the surface a long distance away.
The behavior patterns of the twor species are remarkably different. Common seals give birth in May and June at traditional birthing areas on the shore and on some islands close to shore around the country. By the time the cubs are about one month old, their mothers leave them to fend for themselves. Gray seals, on the other hand, give birth in early winter, between October and December, mostly on offshore islands but never in deep fjords. The fur of the cubs is white when they are born but after a few weeks it molts into gray fur. This is also when they first venture into sea to try to catch fish and it is at this time when their mothers leave them.
A few other species of seal visit Icelandic waters on regular basis, including the Ringed seal, Harp seal, Bearded seal and Hooded seal.

Molt: shedding hair or fur when renewing a coat.

 

Whales

The biggest mammals on earth, the whales, are common in the sea around Iceland. They are generally divided into two main groups, the baleen whales and the toothed whales. Six species of baleen whales and twice as many toothed whales visit Icelandic waters regularly. All but one species of baleen whales, the Lesser rorqual, are more than 9 meters in lenght when fully grown. All but one species of toothed whale, the Sperm whale, are less than 9 meters in lenght when fully grown. The whales are highly adapted to life in the ocean. Most species can dive to a depth of more than 900 meters and stay submerged for half an hour or more.
The baleen whales do not have teeth. Instead they have horny plates, called baleen, in their upper jaw through which they sieve enormous quantities of sea water, trapping planktonic organisms and small fish inside their mouths, which they then swallow. The toothed whales, on the other hand, feed mostly on fish, although the sperm whale feeds mainly on squid.
Many whale species spend only summer in Icelandic waters. They migrate thousands of miles to the tropical seas for the winter where they mate and give birth.
Most whales can live more than thirty years and the biggest baleen whales can live eigthy years or more.

Planktonic organisms: invertebrates and microplants that float in the sea.

 

 

Cliff-nesting birds

 

Where there are steep cliffs around the shores of Iceland one will find cliff-nesting birds in summer. Some of them even visit the cliffs all winter, as long as the ledges are not covered in ice. Krysuvikurberg and Hafnarberg in the Sudurnes area are good examples of such cliffs.
Nesting in cliffs is a very old adaptation by some birds to escape predation by terrestrial mammals asuch as the Arctic fox. Many of them are so specialized by now that they are unable to nest elsewhere, even in the absence of the predators.
Some cliffs are like big cities with up to a million breeding birds of different species. In addition, immature birds tend to stay in the vicinity of the cliffs for a few years before they begin to breed themselves. Many species of sea birds are quite old when they begin to breeding and they can live for decades. A case in point is the Fulmar, which begins to breed when it is 9-10 years of age and can live to be 50 years old. Cliff-nesting birds feed mostly on fish and some species travel tens of miles every day during the breeding season to catch fish for their young. Different species use different methods of fishing. The Gannet dives like an arrow for the fish while the Guillemots and Puffins use their short wings to “fly” underwater, like Penguins do.

 

 

Shorebirds

 

Most Icelandic shorebirds migrate to southern countries for the winter. The distances they travel differ considerably. Whimbrels, which breed in the Sudurnes area, spend the winter in Africa, while Snipes, a species also nesting in the area, winter in Britain and Ireland. The snipe is one of the last shorebirds to leave Iceland in autumn or early winter. These birds are common on Sudurnes in the summer.
The Purple sandpiper is one of the few Icelandic shorebirds which does not migrate. During summer most of them breed in relatively harsh surroundings, including Midnesheidi and the central highlands, but in winter they live along the coast, where they are often seen in large groups. The Ruddy turnstone is common in the Sudurnes region in winter but breeds in Greenland. It has a habit of turning over seaweed and small stones on the shore in search of food, hence the name.
Many of the Icelandic species of shorebirds are heavily hunted on their migration routes in Europe but in Iceland they are totally protected by law. In many parts of the country, however, the quality of their habitat has deteriorated during the latter part of this century due to the draining of wetlands, not to mention the general loss of vegetation due to erosion. Many people believe that shorebird numbers have been reduced during this century, athough hard facts on changes in population size are lacking.

Habitat(of species): place where conditions are favorable for the species concerned.

 

Passerines

Compared to most other European contries there are very few passerine species in Iceland. This is mostly due to the lack of forests in the country. However, with an increase in tree planting, more species will certainly be seen in Iceland.
The Redwing, with its beautiful songs in summer, is probably the most beloved of the Icelandic passerines but most Redwings migrate to warmer climates in winter. Snow buntings, which breed in the highlands in summer, tend to congregate in large flocks in the lowlands and along the coast in winter.
The Starling also stays all year in Iceland, but it is a recent immigrant to the country and is found mostly in and around towns and villages. Its distribution is increasing, but it is still largely dependent on humans for survival.
The largest of the passerines is the Raven. In wintertime one can sometimes see large groups of them together, especially at dusk when they congregate in high mountain cliffs to roost for the night. Ravens are unusual because they seem to enyoy playing and can sometimes be seen turning over in flight and gliding on their backs for a while.

Passerine species: a group of bird spcies with feet adapted to perching, including most songbirds.

 

Ducks, geese and swans

 

The Eider duck is by far the most common species of ducks in Iceland. It is also one of the largest ducks and it can be found along the coastal areas of the country. Eiders sometimes nest in large colonies, with thousands of nests. A few such colonies are to be found in the Sudurnes area, for example at Nordurkot, Fuglavik, Stafnes and Fitjar. The Eider is economically important for the farmers because they harvest the down from nests and sell it. In order to form colonies, the Eides must be protected from predators and are commonly found on islands or on the mainland where the landowners keep foxes, Mink and Ravens away.
In addition there are seventeen other species of ducks breeding in Iceland, some of them quite rare or of limited distribution. Most are of European origin but the beautiful Harlequin is an American species.
Two species of geese regularly nest in Iceland. One of them, the Graylag goose, nests mostly on the lowlands, including the Sudurnes area. The other species is the Pink- footed goose, which nests almost exclusiveley in the central highlands. In spring and autumn there is a greater variety of geese in Iceland because some species migrate through the country on their way to their nesting grounds in Greenland and northern Canada. The Barnacle goose, Brent goose and White-fronted goose are the most numerous.
The Whooper swan is the only species of swan breeding in Iceland. It is also the largest bird in Iclenad and so strong that even the Arctic fox does not dare raid its nest when an adult swan is present.

 

 

Gulls and terns

 

Gulls are an inevitable part of coastal fauna all over the worls. In Iceland there are four species of large gulls: the Greater and Lesser black-backed gulls, the Glaucous gull and the Herring gull. The Greater black-backed gull is the largest gull in the worls and has probably been in Iceland since soon after the end of the Ice Age; the same can be said of the Glaucous gull. The Lesser black-backed gull and the Herring gull, however, are recent arrivals in Iceland, having bred here for the first time in the 1920s. The Lesser black-backed gull has increased spectacularly in numbers in the latter part od the 20th century and the largest colony, with 20,000-30,000 breeding pairs, can be found at Midnesheidi in the Sudurnes area. This gull migrates to southern Europe and northern Africa in the autumn and juveniles only return when they are approaching sexual maturity at the age of 3-4 years.
Arctic terns are among the most popular birds in Iceland. They defend their nests fiercely and occasionally manage to peck into heads of people that approach too close. They seem to be constantly active and their colonies are very noisy places. Arctic terns arrive late in the spring all the way from South Africa and leave again with their young early in the autumn. They are common around Keflavik and elsewhere along shores of Sudurnes.

 

 

Ptarmigan and Gyrfalcon

 

The Rock ptarmigan is often thought of as the image of purity because of its white color in winter and its non-meat diet. That image may not be quite true if one considers the ferocity with which males fight for breeding territories in spring.
The Gyrfalcon is very dependent upon the ptarmigan for food. As the Rock ptarmigan population goes through regular fluctuations in size every ten years, the Gyrfalcon population does so too. According to folklore, when the Gyrfalcon has caught a Rock ptarmigan it begins by tearing out the ptarmigans heart and then cries out in sorrow as it realizes that the ptarmigan is really its sister!
Both species are among the realtively few birds which stay in Iceland throughout the year. The Gyrfalcon is protected by law and there are estimated to be only a few hundred breeding pairs in the country. The Rock ptarmigan is among the most numerous birds in Iceland with a population of around a million birds in autumn. The ptarmigan can be found in the Sudurnes area througout the year but the Gyrfalcon is only found there in winter.
In addition to the Gyrfalcon, Arctic foxes prey heavily on Rock ptarmigan, especially in winter, and hunters take their toll too during a short open hunting season in early winter.

 

 

Birds of prey

 

Besides the Gyrfalcon, the only other birds of prey are the Pigeon hawk and the Gray sea eagle.
The Gray sea eagle is a close relative of the American Bald eagle. It is most common along the west coast of Iceland where it preys upon Eider ducks and fish, in addition to scavenging on carcasses of both birds and mammals. Their numbers declined drastically towards the end of the nineteenth century and into the early part of the twentieth century due to their feeding on poisoned bait meant for Arctic foxes. Since 1960s all such poisoning has been prohibited and the eagle population has recovered, from less than twenty breeding pairs to perhaps thirty-five.
The Pigeon hawk is one of the smallest falcons in the world. It feeds mainly on small passerines and, as these are mostly migrants, most Pigeon hawks also migrate to warmer countries in winter.
The short-eared owl is the only owl known to breed regularly in Iceland. It feeds mostly on mice and small shorebirds. It mainly hunts close to the ground at dusk and dawn and can easely go unnoticed.
Snowy owls are seen annually in Iceland but they rarely breed here anymore.

 

 

Freshwater fish

 

Iceland has fewer species of freshwaterfish than most other European countries. There are only five species: Salmon, Arctic charr, Trout, Eel and the Three-spined stickleback. The variability of these species in Iceland is, however, quite spectacular. In Lake Thingvallavatn, for example, there are four different types or morphs of Arctic charr which do not interbreed in nature. It is possible that they have evolved into distinct species over the last 10,000 years, since the lake was formed at the end of the Ice Age.
The Salmon enter the rivers in summer to spawn in the autumn or early winter. The young then migrate downstream to the sea, where they remain until tey are sexually mature. They are believed to use smell to find the same river where they where born.
Some types of Arctic charr and Trout also spend time in sea water while others spend all their lives in lakes or rivers. All of them breed in freshwater.
The Eel has a remarkable life history because it spawns thousands of miles away in the Sargasso Sea, off the coast of Central America. The young then migrate back to Iceland where they grow up in freshwater before leaving for the sea again to spawn.
Three-spined sticklebacks, which are only one or two inches long, are also interesting because some of them spend all their life in freshwater while others live in the sea off the coast. Some can also be found in estuaries.

Estuary: river mouth into which the tide flows and where the water is a little salty.

 

 

Life in geothermal water

 

Iceland is very rich in geothermal water. In some areas it reaches the surface as hot springs. Good examples of this can be found in Krysuvik and in the vicinity of the Reykjanes lighthouse. Life forms have even adapted to such extreme conditions. There are bacteria which can live in geothermal water at more than 104°C. Wherever scientists have looked for such bacteria in hot pools and springs in Iceland they have found them.
The most heat-tolerant bacteria are generally colorless and thus hard to see. Some, however, tend to stick to each other and form long, grey strings which are visible to the naked eye. Usually the temperature of the water is in the range of 65°-93°C where these are to be found.
Where the water is a little cooler, around 35°-60°C, the water and the water’s edge are often colored red. This is due to other types of bacteria. Where the water is a little cooler, there is often a green color. This is not due to bacteria, however, but to algae.

 

Near hot pools, often sitting in the moss around them, one can frequently see tiny flies moving about. These are not specially adapted to extreme conditions, but as the air is a little warmer near the pools they tend to congregate there to take advantage of the heat to warm their bodies.

 

EXPLORING SUDURNES
            ICELAND
An Environmental Handbook